SET-A

Q1. Discuss the six principles of Classical Realism as given by Hans. J. Morgenthau.

Ans1. Hans J. Morgenthau was a prominent figure in the field of international relations and political philosophy, known for his contribution to classical realism. He identified six principles of classical realism, which we will discuss below:

Politics is governed by objective laws: According to Morgenthau, politics is governed by objective laws that are rooted in human nature. These laws are independent of the individual will and cannot be changed by human intervention. Therefore, statesmen should base their policies on an understanding of these laws to achieve their goals.

The international system is anarchic: Morgenthau believed that the international system is anarchic, meaning that there is no world government to regulate the behavior of states. States operate in a self-help system and must rely on their own power to ensure their survival.

States are the main actors in international politics: In classical realism, the state is the primary actor in international politics, and the interests of the state are paramount. States act to preserve their power and security, and the actions of individuals and non-state actors are seen as subordinate to the interests of the state.

The pursuit of power is a fundamental human motivation: Morgenthau argued that the pursuit of power is a fundamental motivation of human behavior, including in international politics. States seek to maximize their power and influence to achieve their goals.

States must balance power: Given the anarchic nature of the international system, states must balance power to ensure their survival. This involves forming alliances, building up military capabilities, and pursuing policies that enhance their relative power.

Moral principles are subjective and cannot be applied universally: Finally, Morgenthau argued that moral principles are subjective and cannot be applied universally. In international politics, states should base their policies on an understanding of their own interests rather than moral principles, which can vary depending on culture and historical context.

Overall, the six principles of classical realism emphasize the importance of power and self-interest in international politics, and the need for states to pursue policies that enhance their security and relative power in an anarchic international system.

Q2. Why do Keohane and Nye say that force is now an ineffective instrument of state policy in International Relations? Discuss with reference to the theory of Complex Interdependence.

Ans2. Keohane and Nye argue that force is now an ineffective instrument of state policy in International Relations because of the emergence of complex interdependence. Complex interdependence refers to a situation where states are closely connected to each other through multiple channels of interaction such as trade, investment, technology, culture, and communication. In such a system, states are no longer capable of pursuing their interests unilaterally through the use of force.

There are several reasons why force is now an ineffective instrument of state policy in complex interdependence. First, the use of force can lead to unintended consequences that can harm a state’s interests. For example, if a state uses military force to protect its economic interests, it may end up damaging its economic relations with other states, which can have long-term consequences.

Second, the use of force can be costly and inefficient. States must spend significant resources to build up their military capabilities, and the use of force can lead to significant losses in both material and human terms. In contrast, non-military means of achieving goals, such as diplomacy, economic incentives, and cultural influence, can be more cost-effective and efficient.

Third, the interconnected nature of the global system means that the use of force can have ripple effects that can spread across the international system. For example, a military intervention in one part of the world can lead to an escalation of conflict in other parts of the world, which can have a negative impact on global stability and security.

Overall, Keohane and Nye argue that force is now an ineffective instrument of state policy in International Relations due to the emergence of complex interdependence. States must rely on non-military means of achieving their goals in a system where their interests are interconnected and where the use of force can lead to unintended consequences and long-term costs.

Q3. How does the World Systems Theory explain inequalities in World Politics?

Ans3. The World Systems Theory, developed by Immanuel Wallerstein, explains inequalities in world politics by analyzing the historical development of the global capitalist system. According to this theory, the world is divided into a core, a periphery, and a semi-periphery, with the core countries dominating the global economy and the periphery countries being exploited and marginalized.

The core countries are the most advanced industrialized nations, such as the United States, Japan, and Western Europe, which control the global economy and extract resources from the periphery countries. These core countries have highly developed economies and dominate the global market, controlling the production and distribution of goods and services.

The periphery countries are the poorest and least developed nations, such as those in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, which are heavily dependent on the export of raw materials to the core countries. These countries have little control over the global market and are often exploited by the core countries, which extract resources at low prices and sell them at high prices on the global market.

The semi-periphery countries are those that occupy an intermediate position between the core and the periphery. They are often newly industrializing economies, such as China, India, and Brazil, which have the potential to move up to the core but are still dependent on the core countries for technological expertise and capital.

According to the World Systems Theory, these inequalities are a result of the historical development of the global capitalist system. The core countries have used their economic power to extract resources from the periphery countries and to maintain their dominance over the global economy. This has resulted in the marginalization of the periphery countries, which are often trapped in a cycle of poverty and underdevelopment.

Overall, the World Systems Theory explains inequalities in world politics by analyzing the global economic system and the historical development of capitalism. According to this theory, the core-periphery divide is a fundamental feature of the global economy, and inequalities will persist until the global economic system is restructured in a more equitable way.

Q4. How does  J. Ann Ticker criticize the Realist theories of International Relations?

Ans4. J. Ann Tickner criticizes Realist theories of International Relations on several grounds, arguing that they are gender-blind and neglect the experiences and perspectives of women in world politics.

First, Tickner argues that Realism is gender-blind and neglects the experiences and perspectives of women in world politics. Realists focus on power politics among states and ignore the experiences of women who are often marginalized and excluded from decision-making processes in international politics. Women are often impacted by war and conflict in different ways than men, yet Realism ignores these gendered differences.

Second, Tickner criticizes Realism for its focus on war and conflict as the primary means of achieving security in the international system. Realists argue that states must use force to protect their interests, yet this approach can have negative consequences for women who are often disproportionately impacted by war and conflict.

Third, Tickner argues that Realism is too focused on the individual state as the primary actor in international politics, neglecting the role of non-state actors and transnational issues. This neglects the role of women’s movements and other non-state actors in shaping global politics and advancing gender equality.

Finally, Tickner criticizes Realism for its emphasis on rationality and self-interest as the primary motivators of state behavior, neglecting the importance of emotions and socialization in shaping international politics. This neglects the role of gender norms and values in shaping state behavior and international relations.

Overall, Tickner argues that Realist theories of International Relations are inadequate for understanding the complexities of world politics and neglect the experiences and perspectives of women. She calls for a more gender-inclusive approach to International Relations that takes into account the diverse experiences and perspectives of all actors in the international system.

Q5. Explain the main reasons for the disintegration of Soviet Union.

Ans5. The disintegration of the Soviet Union, which occurred in 1991, was a complex process that involved a combination of economic, political, and social factors. Some of the main reasons for the disintegration of the Soviet Union are:

Economic stagnation and decline: The Soviet economy was characterized by inefficiency, centralization, and a lack of incentives for innovation and growth. By the 1980s, the Soviet economy was stagnating, and the government was unable to meet the rising demands of its citizens for goods and services.

Political stagnation and lack of reform: The Soviet political system was characterized by a lack of political freedoms and democratic institutions. The Communist Party was the only legal political party, and there were few opportunities for citizens to participate in the political process. The leadership of the Soviet Union, particularly under Brezhnev, was seen as increasingly corrupt and out of touch with the needs and aspirations of the people.

Nationalism and ethnic tensions: The Soviet Union was a multi-ethnic state, with many different nationalities and cultures living within its borders. Nationalism and ethnic tensions began to rise in the 1980s, particularly in the Baltic republics and the Caucasus region. These tensions were exacerbated by economic decline and political stagnation.

Gorbachev’s reforms: Mikhail Gorbachev, who became General Secretary of the Communist Party in 1985, attempted to reform the Soviet economy and political system through a series of policies known as perestroika and glasnost. These policies aimed to introduce market mechanisms and greater political openness to the Soviet system. However, these reforms also led to increased political and social unrest and ultimately contributed to the breakup of the Soviet Union.

External factors: The end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union’s communist allies in Eastern Europe weakened the Soviet Union’s global position and contributed to its domestic instability. Additionally, the Soviet Union’s military intervention in Afghanistan was a costly and unpopular conflict that further undermined public support for the government.

Overall, the disintegration of the Soviet Union was a complex process that involved a combination of economic, political, and social factors. The collapse of the Soviet Union marked the end of the Cold War and had significant implications for global politics and the balance of power in the international system.

Q6. How has the power balance changed in world politics after the end of the Cold War? Explain with help of relevant examples.

Ans6. The end of the Cold War marked a significant shift in the global balance of power, as the United States emerged as the world’s sole superpower. This shift in power has had significant implications for global politics, with new actors emerging and traditional power relationships being redefined. Here are some examples of how the power balance has changed in world politics after the end of the Cold War:

Unipolarity: With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United States emerged as the world’s sole superpower, giving rise to a unipolar world order. The United States dominated global politics and was able to shape international institutions and norms to its advantage. For example, the United States led the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the World Trade Organization (WTO), and it was able to use its power to intervene militarily in other countries, such as in the Gulf War in 1991.

Rise of China: China has emerged as a major global power since the end of the Cold War, driven by its economic growth and increasing military capabilities. China’s rise has challenged the dominance of the United States and has led to a shift in power dynamics in Asia and beyond. For example, China’s Belt and Road Initiative has allowed it to expand its influence in developing countries, while its military modernization has led to increased tensions with the United States and its allies in the region.

Decline of Russia: Russia’s power and influence declined significantly after the end of the Cold War, as it struggled to transition to a market economy and democratic political system. However, under the leadership of Vladimir Putin, Russia has sought to reassert its power on the global stage through its military interventions in Ukraine and Syria, as well as its efforts to influence elections in other countries.

Rise of non-state actors: The end of the Cold War also saw the rise of non-state actors, such as transnational corporations, non-governmental organizations, and terrorist groups, which have been able to exert significant influence on global politics. For example, the rise of global civil society has led to increased pressure on governments to address issues such as human rights, environmental protection, and social justice.

Overall, the end of the Cold War has led to a significant shift in the global balance of power, with new actors emerging and traditional power relationships being redefined. This has created new challenges and opportunities for global governance and has reshaped the dynamics of world politics in important ways.

Q7. Analyse the major challenges before India as an emerging power in world politics.

Ans7. India is considered an emerging power in world politics due to its growing economic, military, and diplomatic capabilities. However, India also faces several significant challenges that could impede its rise as a global power. Here are some of the major challenges facing India as an emerging power in world politics:

Domestic Challenges: India faces several domestic challenges, including poverty, inequality, corruption, and sectarianism. These challenges can hinder economic development and social stability, which are critical components of India’s global rise.

Regional Tensions: India is located in a volatile neighborhood, with several ongoing conflicts and tensions, particularly with its neighbors Pakistan and China. India’s border disputes with these countries have led to several military conflicts, and tensions between India and Pakistan have been further exacerbated by terrorism and religious extremism.

Energy Security: India’s rapid economic growth has increased its demand for energy, but its domestic energy resources are limited. This has made India heavily dependent on imported energy, particularly from the Middle East. As a result, India’s energy security is vulnerable to price fluctuations and geopolitical instability in these regions.

Climate Change: India is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, such as rising sea levels, changing weather patterns, and extreme weather events. These impacts could have significant economic and social consequences for India, particularly for its large rural population.

Geo-Political Competition: India is also facing growing geopolitical competition from China and the United States, particularly in the Indo-Pacific region. The increasing competition between these powers can have significant implications for India’s strategic interests, including its economic growth, military modernization, and diplomatic influence.

Diplomatic Challenges: India also faces several diplomatic challenges, including tensions with neighboring countries, conflicting interests with major powers, and navigating complex multilateral institutions. For example, India has struggled to balance its strategic interests with China while maintaining its strategic partnership with the United States.

Overall, India’s emergence as a global power is not without challenges. These challenges are complex, interconnected, and require long-term planning and policy solutions. Addressing these challenges effectively will be critical for India’s continued rise as a global power and for shaping the future of world politics.

Q8. Write short notes on Any Two of the following:

(a) Neo-Realism of Kenneth Waltz

Ans8 a Neo-Realism, also known as Structural Realism, is a theory of international relations developed by Kenneth Waltz in the 1970s. It is a branch of the broader Realist school of thought and is primarily concerned with the distribution of power in the international system.

According to Neo-Realism, international politics is characterized by a state of anarchy, in which there is no centralized authority to regulate the behavior of states. Therefore, states must rely on their own power and capabilities to ensure their survival and security. In this context, Neo-Realism argues that the distribution of power among states is the primary determinant of international politics.

Waltz argues that there are two main sources of power in the international system: first, the distribution of material capabilities, such as military and economic power, and second, the distribution of information, or knowledge about the capabilities and intentions of other states.

Waltz argues that the distribution of power in the international system is shaped by the structure of the system itself, rather than the individual characteristics of states. He identifies two types of international systems: multipolar systems, in which power is distributed among multiple major powers, and bipolar systems, in which power is concentrated among two major powers. He argues that bipolar systems are more stable than multipolar systems, as the two major powers are able to balance against each other, whereas in a multipolar system, there may be shifting alliances and the potential for conflict.

Waltz also argues that states are rational actors who seek to maximize their own security and survival in the international system. Therefore, states will behave in a way that is consistent with their own interests, even if this means taking aggressive or coercive actions against other states.

Overall, Neo-Realism is a theory of international relations that emphasizes the importance of power and the structure of the international system in shaping state behavior. It has had a significant influence on the study of international relations and has been used to explain a wide range of political phenomena, including war, alliances, and international institutions.

(b) Geo-political determinants of India’s Foreign Policy

Ans8 b India’s foreign policy is shaped by various geopolitical determinants, which include its geographic location, economic interests, regional security concerns, historical legacies, and global power dynamics. These determinants have influenced India’s foreign policy choices and priorities over the years.

Geographic location: India’s strategic location between the Middle East, Central Asia, and East Asia, has made it an important player in regional and global affairs. India’s proximity to volatile regions like the Persian Gulf and Central Asia has influenced its security concerns, while its location in the Indian Ocean has made it a significant player in the maritime domain.

Economic interests: India’s growing economy has made it an attractive market for countries seeking trade and investment opportunities. As a result, India’s foreign policy has focused on promoting economic growth and expanding its trade relationships with other countries.

Regional security concerns: India’s regional security concerns are shaped by its relationships with its neighbors, particularly Pakistan and China. The ongoing conflicts and tensions with these countries have influenced India’s military modernization, defense partnerships, and strategic alliances.

Historical legacies: India’s colonial past and its role in the Non-Aligned Movement during the Cold War have had a lasting impact on its foreign policy choices. India’s commitment to anti-colonialism, sovereignty, and non-alignment continue to influence its diplomatic priorities and relationships with other countries.

Global power dynamics: India’s foreign policy is also influenced by global power dynamics, particularly the relationships between major powers like the United States, China, and Russia. India’s strategic partnerships and alignments are shaped by its efforts to balance these global power dynamics and secure its strategic interests.

Overall, these geopolitical determinants have influenced India’s foreign policy choices and priorities, and will continue to shape India’s role in regional and global affairs.

(c) New Cold War

Ans8 c The term “New Cold War” refers to the growing tensions between the United States and its allies on one side, and Russia and its allies on the other side. This new era of tensions is often compared to the Cold War that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union from the end of World War II until the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991.

The new Cold War is characterized by a number of geopolitical and economic factors, including:

Military tensions: The United States and Russia are both major military powers with large nuclear arsenals. Both countries have been modernizing their military capabilities, and there have been several close encounters between their military forces in recent years.

Economic competition: The United States and Russia are also major economic powers, and they compete in a number of areas, including energy, technology, and trade. Sanctions and economic pressure have been used as tools to advance each side’s interests.

Political influence: Both the United States and Russia seek to influence the politics of other countries, often in ways that are seen as threatening by the other side. This has led to tensions in regions such as Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and the Asia-Pacific.

Ideological differences: The United States and Russia have fundamentally different political and economic systems, with the United States championing democracy and free-market capitalism, while Russia embraces authoritarianism and state-led capitalism.

The new Cold War has significant implications for global politics, as it has led to increased polarization and tension between the United States and Russia, as well as their respective allies. It has also complicated efforts to address global challenges, such as climate change, terrorism, and nuclear proliferation. While some argue that the new Cold War is simply a continuation of longstanding geopolitical tensions between the United States and Russia, others fear that it could lead to a dangerous escalation of military tensions and a return to the threat of nuclear war.

(d) Russia in World Politics

Ans8 d Russia is a major player in world politics, with a rich history and a complex relationship with other countries. Russia’s foreign policy is shaped by a number of factors, including its strategic location, its military and economic power, and its historical legacy.

Strategic location: Russia’s geographic location gives it a strategic advantage, as it is situated between Europe and Asia and has access to important natural resources. However, it also makes Russia vulnerable to threats from neighboring countries and regions.

Military power: Russia has a powerful military with a large standing army and a significant nuclear arsenal. This military strength gives Russia influence in global affairs, particularly in conflicts in the Middle East and Eastern Europe.

Economic power: Russia is also a major economic power, with vast reserves of natural resources, including oil and gas. Russia has used its economic power to expand its influence in neighboring countries and to build strategic partnerships with other countries.

Historical legacy: Russia has a rich cultural and historical legacy that has shaped its foreign policy choices. Russia’s history of imperialism, communist ideology, and authoritarianism continue to influence its relationship with other countries.

Russia’s foreign policy is focused on expanding its influence in its near abroad, particularly in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Russia has sought to build alliances with countries in these regions, including through the creation of the Eurasian Economic Union. Russia is also involved in conflicts in the Middle East, particularly in Syria, where it has provided military support to the Assad regime.

Russia’s relationship with the West has been strained in recent years, particularly since the 2014 annexation of Crimea. The United States and its allies have imposed economic sanctions on Russia, and there have been tensions over issues such as election interference and military activities in Eastern Europe.

Overall, Russia remains a major player in world politics, with significant military and economic power and a complex relationship with other countries. Its foreign policy is shaped by a range of factors, including its strategic location, military power, economic interests, and historical legacy.